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<span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">September 2003  || <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">September 2003 | Volume **61** | Number **1** **<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">The Key to Classroom Management ** //<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Robert J. Marzano and Jana S. Marzano // **<span style="color: #666666; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">By using research-based strategies combining appropriate levels of dominance and cooperation and an awareness of student needs, teachers can build positive classroom dynamics. ** <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Today, we know more about teaching than we ever have before. Research has shown us that teachers' actions in their classrooms have twice the impact on student achievement as do school policies regarding curriculum, assessment, staff collegiality, and community involvement (Marzano, 2003a). We also know that one of the classroom teacher's most important jobs is managing the classroom effectively. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">A comprehensive literature review by Wang, Haertel, and Walberg (1993) amply demonstrates the importance of effective classroom management. These researchers analyzed 86 chapters from annual research reviews, 44 handbook chapters, 20 government and commissioned reports, and 11 journal articles to produce a list of 228 variables affecting student achievement. They combined the results of these analyses with the findings from 134 separate meta-analyses. Of all the variables, classroom management had the largest effect on student achievement. This makes intuitive sense—students cannot learn in a chaotic, poorly managed classroom. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Research not only supports the importance of classroom management, but it also sheds light on the dynamics of classroom management. Stage and Quiroz's meta-analysis (1997) shows the importance of there being a balance between teacher actions that provide clear consequences for unacceptable behavior and teacher actions that recognize and reward acceptable behavior. Other researchers (Emmer, Evertson, & Worsham, 2003; Evertson, Emmer, & Worsham, 2003) have identified important components of classroom management, including beginning the school year with a positive emphasis on management; arranging the room in a way conducive to effective management; and identifying and implementing rules and operating procedures. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">In a recent meta-analysis of more than 100 studies (Marzano, 2003b), we found that the quality of teacher-student relationships is the keystone for all other aspects of classroom management. In fact, our meta-analysis indicates that on average, teachers who had high-quality relationships with their students had 31 percent fewer discipline problems, rule violations, and related problems over a year's time than did teachers who did not have high-quality relationships with their students. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">What are the characteristics of effective teacher-student relationships? Let's first consider what they are not. Effective teacher-student relationships have nothing to do with the teacher's personality or even with whether the students view the teacher as a friend. Rather, the most effective teacher-student relationships are characterized by specific teacher behaviors: exhibiting appropriate levels of dominance; exhibiting appropriate levels of cooperation; and being aware of high-needs students. <span style="color: #666644; font-family: 'Tahoma','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Appropriate Levels of Dominance <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Wubbels and his colleagues (Wubbels, Brekelmans, van Tartwijk, & Admiral, 1999; Wubbels & Levy, 1993) identify appropriate dominance as an important characteristic of effective teacher-student relationships. In contrast to the more negative connotation of the term //dominance// as forceful control or command over others, they define dominance as the teacher's ability to provide clear purpose and strong guidance regarding both academics and student behavior. Studies indicate that when asked about their preferences for teacher behavior, students typically express a desire for this type of teacher-student interaction. For example, in a study that involved interviews with more than 700 students in grades 4–7, students articulated a clear preference for strong teacher guidance and control rather than more permissive types of teacher behavior (Chiu & Tulley, 1997). Teachers can exhibit appropriate dominance by establishing clear behavior expectations and learning goals and by exhibiting assertive behavior. <span style="color: #003366; font-family: 'Tahoma','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Establish Clear Expectations and Consequences <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Teachers can establish clear expectations for behavior in two ways: by establishing clear rules and procedures, and by providing consequences for student behavior. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">The seminal research of the 1980s (Emmer, 1984; Emmer, Sanford, Evertson, Clements, & Martin, 1981; Evertson & Emmer, 1982) points to the importance of establishing rules and procedures for general classroom behavior, group work, seat work, transitions and interruptions, use of materials and equipment, and beginning and ending the period or the day. Ideally, the class should establish these rules and procedures through discussion and mutual consent by teacher and students (Glasser, 1969, 1990). <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Along with well-designed and clearly communicated rules and procedures, the teacher must acknowledge students' behavior, reinforcing acceptable behavior and providing negative consequences for unacceptable behavior. Stage and Quiroz's research (1997) is instructive. They found that teachers build effective relationships through such strategies as the following: <span style="color: #003366; font-family: 'Tahoma','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Establish Clear Learning Goals <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Teachers can also exhibit appropriate levels of dominance by providing clarity about the content and expectations of an upcoming instructional unit. Important teacher actions to achieve this end include <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">The use of rubrics can help teachers establish clear goals. To illustrate, assume that a teacher has identified the learning goal “understanding and using fractions” as important for a given unit. That teacher might present students with the following rubric: <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">4 points. You understand the characteristics of fractions along with the different types. You can accurately describe how fractions are related to decimals and percentages. You can convert fractions to decimals and can explain how and why the process works. You can use fractions to understand and solve different types of problems. <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">3 points. You understand the basic characteristics of fractions. You know how fractions are related to decimals and percentages. You can convert fractions to decimals. <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">2 points. You have a basic understanding of the following, but have some small misunderstandings about one or more: the characteristics of fractions; the relationships among fractions, decimals, and percentages; how to convert fractions to decimals. <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">1 point. You have some major problems or misunderstandings with one or more of the following: the characteristics of fractions; the relationships among fractions, decimals, and percentages; how to convert fractions to decimals. <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">0 points. You may have heard of the following before, but you do not understand what they mean: the characteristics of fractions; the relationships among fractions, decimals, and percentages; how to convert fractions to decimals. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">The clarity of purpose provided by this rubric communicates to students that their teacher can provide proper guidance and direction in academic content. <span style="color: #003366; font-family: 'Tahoma','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Exhibit Assertive Behavior <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Teachers can also communicate appropriate levels of dominance by exhibiting assertive behavior. According to Emmer and colleagues, assertive behavior is   <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">the ability to stand up for one's legitimate rights in ways that make it less likely that others will ignore or circumvent them. (2003, p. 146) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Assertive behavior differs significantly from both passive behavior and aggressive behavior. These researchers explain that teachers display assertive behavior in the classroom when they <span style="color: #666644; font-family: 'Tahoma','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Appropriate Levels of Cooperation <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Cooperation is characterized by a concern for the needs and opinions of others. Although not the antithesis of dominance, cooperation certainly occupies a different realm. Whereas dominance focuses on the teacher as the driving force in the classroom, cooperation focuses on the students and teacher functioning as a team. The interaction of these two dynamics—dominance and cooperation—is a central force in effective teacher-student relationships. Several strategies can foster appropriate levels of cooperation. <span style="color: #003366; font-family: 'Tahoma','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Provide Flexible Learning Goals <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Just as teachers can communicate appropriate levels of dominance by providing clear learning goals, they can also convey appropriate levels of cooperation by providing flexible learning goals. Giving students the opportunity to set their own objectives at the beginning of a unit or asking students what they would like to learn conveys a sense of cooperation. Assume, for example, that a teacher has identified the topic of fractions as the focus of a unit of instruction and has provided students with a rubric. The teacher could then ask students to identify some aspect of fractions or a related topic that they would particularly like to study. Giving students this kind of choice, in addition to increasing their understanding of the topic, conveys the message that the teacher cares about and tries to accommodate students' interests. <span style="color: #003366; font-family: 'Tahoma','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Take a Personal Interest in Students <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Probably the most obvious way to communicate appropriate levels of cooperation is to take a personal interest in each student in the class. As McCombs and Whisler (1997) note, all students appreciate personal attention from the teacher. Although busy teachers—particularly those at the secondary level—do not have the time for extensive interaction with all students, some teacher actions can communicate personal interest and concern without taking up much time. Teachers can <span style="color: #003366; font-family: 'Tahoma','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Use Equitable and Positive Classroom Behaviors <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Programs like Teacher Expectations and Student Achievement emphasize the importance of the subtle ways in which teachers can communicate their interest in students (Kerman, Kimball, & Martin, 1980). This program recommends many practical strategies that emphasize equitable and positive classroom interactions with all students. Teachers should, for example, <span style="color: #666644; font-family: 'Tahoma','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Awareness of High-Needs Students <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Classroom teachers meet daily with a broad cross-section of students. In general, 12–22 percent of all students in school suffer from mental, emotional, or behavioral disorders, and relatively few receive mental health services (Adelman & Taylor, 2002). The Association of School Counselors notes that 18 percent of students have special needs and require extraordinary interventions and treatments that go beyond the typical resources available to the classroom (Dunn & Baker, 2002). <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Although the classroom teacher is certainly not in a position to directly address such severe problems, teachers with effective classroom management skills are aware of high-needs students and have a repertoire of specific techniques for meeting some of their needs (Marzano, 2003b). Figure 1 (p. 10) summarizes five categories of high-needs students and suggests classroom strategies for each category and subcategory. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Fear of failure: **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> Gives up easily, is convinced he or she can't succeed, is easily frustrated, uses negative self-talk. || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Provide safe adult and peer interactions and protection from aggressive people. Provide assertiveness and positive self-talk training. Reward small successes quickly. Withhold criticism. || **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Oppositional: **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> Does opposite of what is asked. Demands that others agree or give in. Resists verbally or nonverbally. **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Covert: **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> Appears to agree but then does the opposite of what is asked. Often acts innocent while setting up problems for others. || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Describe the student's behavior clearly. Contract with the student to reward corrected behavior and set up consequences for uncorrected behavior. Be consistent and provide immediate rewards and consequences. Encourage and acknowledge extracurricular activities in and out of school. Give student responsibilities to help teacher or other students to foster successful experiences. || **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Inattentive: **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> Has difficulty staying focused and following through on projects. Has difficulty with listening, remembering, and organizing. || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Contract with the student to manage behaviors. Teach basic concentration, study, and thinking skills. Separate student in a quiet work area. Help the student list each step of a task. Reward successes; assign a peer tutor. || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">School may be the only place where many students who face extreme challenges can get their needs addressed. The reality of today's schools often demands that classroom teachers address these severe issues, even though this task is not always considered a part of their regular job. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">In a study of classroom strategies (see Brophy, 1996; Brophy & McCaslin, 1992), researchers examined how effective classroom teachers interacted with specific types of students. The study found that the most effective classroom managers did not treat all students the same; they tended to employ different strategies with different types of students. In contrast, ineffective classroom managers did not appear sensitive to the diverse needs of students. Although Brophy did not couch his findings in terms of teacher-student relationships, the link is clear. An awareness of the five general categories of high-needs students and appropriate actions for each can help teachers build strong relationships with diverse students. <span style="color: #666644; font-family: 'Tahoma','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Don't Leave Relationships to Chance <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Teacher-student relationships provide an essential foundation for effective classroom management—and classroom management is a key to high student achievement. Teacher-student relationships should not be left to chance or dictated by the personalities of those involved. Instead, by using strategies supported by research, teachers can influence the dynamics of their classrooms and build strong teacher-student relationships that will support student learning. <span style="color: #003366; font-family: 'Tahoma','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">References <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Adelman, H. S., & Taylor, L. (2002). School counselors and school reform: New directions. //Professional School Counseling, 5//(4), 235–248. <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Brophy, J. E. (1996). //Teaching problem students//. New York: Guilford. <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Brophy, J. E., & McCaslin, N. (1992). Teachers' reports of how they perceive and cope with problem students. //Elementary School Journal, 93//, 3–68. <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Chiu, L. H., & Tulley, M. (1997). Student preferences of teacher discipline styles. //Journal of Instructional Psychology, 24//(3), 168–175. <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Dunn, N. A., & Baker, S. B. (2002). Readiness to serve students with disabilities: A survey of elementary school counselors. //Professional School Counselors, 5//(4), 277–284. <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Emmer, E. T. (1984). //Classroom management: Research and implications//. (R & D Report No. 6178). Austin, TX: Research and Development Center for Teacher Education, University of Texas. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED251448) <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Emmer, E. T., Evertson, C. M., & Worsham, M. E. (2003). //Classroom management for secondary teachers// (6th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Emmer, E. T., Sanford, J. P., Evertson, C. M., Clements, B. S., & Martin, J. (1981). //The classroom management improvement study: An experiment in elementary school classrooms//. (R & D Report No. 6050). Austin, TX: Research and Development Center for Teacher Education, University of Texas. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED226452) <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Evertson, C. M., & Emmer, E. T. (1982). Preventive classroom management. In D. Duke (Ed.), //Helping teachers manage classrooms// (pp. 2–31). Alexandria, VA: ASCD. <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Evertson, C. M., Emmer, E. T., & Worsham, M. E. (2003). //Classroom management for elementary teachers// (6th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Glasser, W. (1969). //Schools without failure//. New York: Harper and Row. <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Glasser, W. (1990). //The quality school: Managing students without coercion//. New York: Harper and Row. <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Kerman, S., Kimball, T., & Martin, M. (1980). //Teacher expectations and student achievement//. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappan. <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Marzano, R. J. (2003a). //What works in schools//. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Marzano, R. J. (with Marzano, J. S., & Pickering, D. J.). (2003b). //Classroom management that works//. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">McCombs, B. L., & Whisler, J. S. (1997). //The learner-centered classroom and school//. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Stage, S. A., & Quiroz, D. R. (1997). A meta-analysis of interventions to decrease disruptive classroom behavior in public education settings. //School Psychology Review, 26//(3), 333–368. <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Wang, M. C., Haertel, G. D., & Walberg, H. J. (1993). Toward a knowledge base for school learning. //Review of Educational Research, 63//(3), 249–294. <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Wubbels, T., Brekelmans, M., van Tartwijk, J., & Admiral, W. (1999). Interpersonal relationships between teachers and students in the classroom. In H. C. Waxman & H. J. Walberg (Eds.), //New directions for teaching practice and research// (pp. 151–170). Berkeley, CA: McCutchan. <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Wubbels, T., & Levy, J. (1993). //Do you know what you look like? Interpersonal relationships in education//. London: Falmer Press. <span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">
 * Building Classroom Relationships** Pages 6-13
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Using a wide variety of verbal and physical reactions to students' misbehavior, such as moving closer to offending students and using a physical cue, such as a finger to the lips, to point out inappropriate behavior.
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Cuing the class about expected behaviors through prearranged signals, such as raising a hand to indicate that all students should take their seats.
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Providing tangible recognition of appropriate behavior—with tokens or chits, for example.
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Employing group contingency policies that hold the entire group responsible for behavioral expectations.
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Employing home contingency techniques that involve rewards and sanctions at home.
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Establishing and communicating learning goals at the beginning of a unit of instruction.
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Providing feedback on those goals.
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Continually and systematically revisiting the goals.
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Providing summative feedback regarding the goals.
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Use assertive body language by maintaining an erect posture, facing the offending student but keeping enough distance so as not to appear threatening and matching the facial expression with the content of the message being presented to students.
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Use an appropriate tone of voice, speaking clearly and deliberately in a pitch that is slightly but not greatly elevated from normal classroom speech, avoiding any display of emotions in the voice.
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Persist until students respond with the appropriate behavior. Do not ignore an inappropriate behavior; do not be diverted by a student denying, arguing, or blaming, but listen to legitimate explanations.
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Talk informally with students before, during, and after class about their interests.
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Greet students outside of school—for instance, at extracurricular events or at the store.
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Single out a few students each day in the lunchroom and talk with them.
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Be aware of and comment on important events in students' lives, such as participation in sports, drama, or other extracurricular activities.
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Compliment students on important achievements in and outside of school.
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Meet students at the door as they come into class; greet each one by name.
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Make eye contact with each student. Teachers can make eye contact by scanning the entire room as they speak and by freely moving about all sections of the room.
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Deliberately move toward and stand close to each student during the class period. Make sure that the seating arrangement allows the teacher and students clear and easy ways to move around the room.
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Attribute the ownership of ideas to the students who initiated them. For instance, in a discussion a teacher might say, “Cecilia just added to Aida's idea by saying that . . . .”
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Allow and encourage all students to participate in class discussions and interactions. Make sure to call on students who do not commonly participate, not just those who respond most frequently.
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Provide appropriate wait time for all students to respond to questions, regardless of their past performance or your perception of their abilities.
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .5in;">//<span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Passive //<span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> students fall into two subcategories: those who fear //relationships// and those who fear //failure//. Teachers can build strong relationships with these students by refraining from criticism, rewarding small successes, and creating a classroom climate in which students feel safe from aggressive people.
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">The category of //aggressive// students comprises three subcategories: //hostile, oppositional//, and //covert//. Hostile students often have poor anger control, low capacity for empathy, and an inability to see the consequences of their actions. Oppositional students exhibit milder forms of behavior problems, but they consistently resist following rules, argue with adults, use harsh language, and tend to annoy others. Students in the covert subcategory may be quite pleasant at times, but they are often nearby when trouble starts and they never quite do what authority figures ask of them. Strategies for helping aggressive students include creating behavior contracts and providing immediate rewards and consequences. Most of all, teachers must keep in mind that aggressive students, although they may appear highly resistant to behavior change, are still children who are experiencing a significant amount of fear and pain.
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Students with //attention// problems fall into two categories: //hyperactive// and //inattentive//. These students may respond well when teachers contract with them to manage behaviors; teach them basic concentration, study, and thinking skills; help them divide tasks into manageable parts; reward their successes; and assign them a peer tutor.
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Students in the //perfectionist// category are driven to succeed at unattainable levels. They are self-critical, have low self-esteem, and feel inferior. Teachers can often help these students by encouraging them to develop more realistic standards, helping them to accept mistakes, and giving them opportunities to tutor other students.
 * <span style="line-height: 12.75pt; 0in margin: 0in 0in 6pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .5in;">//<span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Socially inept //<span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> students have difficulty making and keeping friends. They may stand too close and touch others in annoying ways, talk too much, and misread others' comments. Teachers can help these students by counseling them about social behaviors.
 * <span style="color: #003366; font-family: 'Tahoma','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Figure 1. Categories of High-Needs Students
 * Category **  || **<span style="color: #003366; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Definitions & Source  ** || **<span style="color: #003366; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Characteristics  ** || **<span style="color: #003366; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Suggestions  ** ||
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Passive **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">  || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Behavior that avoids the domination of others or the pain of negative experiences. The child attempts to protect self from criticism, ridicule, or rejection, possibly reacting to abuse and neglect. Can have a biochemical basis, such as anxiety.   || **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Fear of relationships: **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> Avoids connection with others, is shy, doesn't initiate conversations, attempts to be invisible.
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Aggressive **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">  || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Behavior that overpowers, dominates, harms, or controls others without regard for their well-being. The child has often taken aggressive people as role models. Has had minimal or ineffective limits set on behavior. Is possibly reacting to abuse and neglect. Condition may have a biochemical basis, such as depression.   || **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Hostile: **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> Rages, threatens, or intimidates others. Can be verbally or physically abusive to people, animals, or objects.
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Attention problems **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">  || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Behavior that demonstrates either motor or attentional difficulties resulting from a neurological disorder. The child's symptoms may be exacerbated by family or social stressors or biochemical conditions, such as anxiety, depression, or bipolar disorders.   || **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Hyperactive: **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> Has difficulty with motor control, both physically and verbally. Fidgets, leaves seat frequently, interrupts, talks excessively.
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Perfectionist **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">  || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Behavior that is geared toward avoiding the embarrassment and assumed shame of making mistakes. The child fears what will happen if errors are discovered. Has unrealistically high expectations of self. Has possibly received criticism or lack of acceptance while making mistakes during the process of learning.   || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Tends to focus too much on the small details of projects. Will avoid projects if unsure of outcome. Focuses on results and not relationships. Is self-critical.   || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Ask the student to make mistakes on purpose, then show acceptance. Have the student tutor other students.   ||
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Socially inept **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">  || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Behavior that is based on the misinterpretation of nonverbal signals of others. The child misunderstands facial expressions and body language. Hasn't received adequate training in these areas and has poor role modeling.   || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Attempts to make friends but is inept and unsuccessful. Is forced to be alone. Is often teased for unusual behavior, appearance, or lack of social skills.   || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Teach the student to keep the appropriate physical distance from others. Teach the meaning of facial expressions, such as anger and hurt. Make suggestions regarding hygiene, dress, mannerisms, and posture.   ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Source: Marzano, R.J. (2003). //What works in schools: Translating research into action// (pp. 104–105). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.  ||

**<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Robert J. Marzano **<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt;"> is a senior scholar at Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning in Aurora, Colorado, and an associate professor at Cardinal Stritch University in Milwaukee, Wisconsin; (303) 796-7683; **robertjmarzano@aol.com**. His newest book written with Jana S. Marzano and Debra J. Pickering is //Classroom Management That Works// (ASCD, 2003). **Jana S. Marzano** is a licensed professional counselor in private practice in Centennial, Colorado; (303) 220-1151; **janamarzan@aol.com**.